Interactions Among Branches of Government: every key term you need (+ practice quiz)

More AP US Government guides

• Foundations of American Democracy
• Civil Liberties and Civil Rights
• American Political Ideologies and Beliefs
• Political Participation

Bicameral Congress

The two-house legislature: the House of Representatives (435 members, apportioned by population) and the Senate (100 members, two per state).

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Upheld implied powers via the Necessary and Proper Clause (Congress could charter a national bank) and ruled states cannot tax federal institutions — 'the power to tax is the power to destroy.'

Enumerated Powers of Congress

Powers listed in Article I, Section 8, including taxing, borrowing, regulating commerce, declaring war, and coining money.

Power of the Purse

Congress's exclusive authority to tax and spend, giving it control over federal appropriations and a check on the executive.

Speaker of the House

Leader of the majority party in the House; sets the agenda, refers bills to committees, and is second in line for presidential succession.

Filibuster and Cloture

A filibuster is prolonged Senate debate to delay a vote; cloture ends it and requires 60 votes to invoke.

Committee System

Standing, joint, select, and conference committees that review bills, hold hearings, and shape legislation before floor votes.

Discharge Petition

A House procedure allowing a majority (218 members) to force a bill out of committee to the floor for a vote.

Filibuster vs. House Rules Committee

The Senate allows unlimited debate (filibuster); the House uses the Rules Committee to set time limits and terms of debate.

Pork-Barrel and Logrolling

Pork barrel is spending directed to a member's district; logrolling is vote-trading among members to pass each other's projects.

Mandatory vs. Discretionary Spending

Mandatory spending is required by law (e.g., Social Security, Medicare); discretionary spending is set annually by appropriations.

Formal Presidential Powers

Powers granted in Article II: veto, commander in chief, appointments, treaties, and pardons.

Informal Presidential Powers

Powers not explicitly listed, including executive orders, executive agreements, signing statements, and the bully pulpit.

Executive Order

A directive from the president that manages the operations of the federal government and carries the force of law without congressional approval.

Federalist No. 70

Hamilton's essay arguing for a single, energetic executive to provide decisive, accountable leadership.

Bully Pulpit

The president's use of national visibility and media access to appeal directly to the public and pressure Congress.

Federal Bureaucracy

The departments, agencies, and commissions of the executive branch that implement and enforce laws and regulations.

Discretionary and Rule-Making Authority

Bureaucratic power to interpret laws (discretionary authority) and to create binding regulations (rule-making) that carry the force of law.

Iron Triangle

A mutually beneficial relationship among a congressional committee, a bureaucratic agency, and an interest group that shapes policy.

Oversight

Congressional review of the executive branch and bureaucracy through hearings, budget control, and the power to reorganize agencies.

Federalist No. 78

Hamilton's essay describing the judiciary as the 'least dangerous' branch, defending life tenure and judicial review.

Judicial Review

The Supreme Court's power to declare laws and executive actions unconstitutional, established in Marbury v. Madison (1803).

Stare Decisis and Precedent

The principle that courts should follow prior rulings (precedent) to ensure stability and predictability in law.

Trustee vs. Delegate vs. Politico

Trustees vote their own judgment; delegates follow constituents' wishes; politicos switch between the two depending on the issue's salience.

Gerrymandering

Drawing district lines to advantage a party or group; partisan gerrymanders were held nonjusticiable in Rucho v. Common Cause (2019).

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

Held that a bizarrely shaped majority-minority district drawn predominantly on race is subject to strict scrutiny under the Equal Protection Clause.

Baker v. Carr and 'One Person, One Vote'

Made redistricting justiciable, leading to the requirement that districts have roughly equal populations.

Divided Government

One party controls the presidency and another controls one or both chambers of Congress; associated with gridlock and more vetoes.

Gridlock

Policy stalemate produced by divided government, polarization, the filibuster, and rules that require supermajorities.

Senate Hold

An informal practice by which a single senator signals intent to object to unanimous consent, delaying a bill or nomination.

Unanimous Consent Agreements

Senate procedural agreements setting the terms of debate; the Senate's substitute for the House Rules Committee.

Conference Committee

Temporary joint committee that reconciles House and Senate versions of a bill before final passage.

Budget Reconciliation

Fast-track process for revenue and spending bills that cannot be filibustered, limited by the Byrd Rule to budget-related provisions.

Entitlement Programs

Mandatory spending such as Social Security and Medicare that grows automatically, crowding out discretionary spending over time.

Pocket Veto

If Congress adjourns within ten days of presenting a bill and the president does not sign it, the bill dies without a veto message.

Signing Statement

Written comment issued when signing a bill, sometimes asserting the president's interpretation or intent not to enforce provisions.

Executive Agreement

International agreement made by the president without Senate ratification; binding on the president who made it but not formally on successors.

Twenty-Second Amendment

Limits presidents to two elected terms (or ten years total), a formal constraint on presidential power adopted after FDR.

War Powers Resolution (1973)

Requires notice to Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops and withdrawal after 60 days without authorization; presidents dispute its constitutionality.

Executive Privilege and United States v. Nixon (1974)

Court recognized a qualified privilege for confidential communications but ruled it cannot block a criminal subpoena for evidence.

Federalist No. 70 on Energy

Hamilton argued a single, energetic executive brings decision, activity, secrecy, and dispatch, and is more accountable than a plural executive.

Merit System and Pendleton Act (1883)

Replaced patronage with competitive exams for federal jobs, creating a professional, politically neutral civil service.

Independent Regulatory Commissions

Agencies such as the FCC or SEC led by bipartisan boards with fixed terms, insulated from direct presidential removal.

Compliance Monitoring

Bureaucratic function of checking that regulated parties follow the rules, e.g., EPA inspections or IRS audits.

Issue Networks

Looser, more fluid webs of interest groups, experts, media, and officials that shape policy, contrasted with tighter iron triangles.

Power of the Purse as Oversight

Congress controls agencies through appropriations, riders, and hearings, and can defund programs it disapproves of.

Judicial Restraint vs. Activism

Restraint defers to elected branches and precedent; activism is more willing to strike down laws or overturn precedent to protect rights.

Senate Confirmation and Judicial Ideology

Presidents choose nominees sharing their philosophy; because justices serve for life, confirmation battles have become intense.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Marshall established judicial review by holding that the Judiciary Act's grant of original jurisdiction conflicted with Article III.