AP Psychology · Unit 4

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42 flashcard terms for AP Psychology Unit 4, written to match the course framework. Read them here, drill them as flashcards, or take the 24-question quiz. Free, no account needed.

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Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.
Classical Conditioning: Learning to associate two stimuli so that a neutral stimulus triggers a reflexive response.
Ivan Pavlov: Discovered classical conditioning while studying salivation in dogs to a bell paired with food.
Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without learning, such as food causing salivation.
Unconditioned Response (UR): The natural, unlearned reaction to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivating to food.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A once-neutral stimulus that, after pairing with the US, triggers a learned response.
Conditioned Response (CR): The learned reaction to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus, such as salivating to a bell.
Acquisition: The initial stage of learning when a neutral stimulus becomes linked with the unconditioned stimulus.
Extinction: The weakening of a conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US.
Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a weakened conditioned response after a rest period following extinction.
Generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus.
Discrimination: The learned ability to distinguish the conditioned stimulus from other, similar stimuli.
John B. Watson: Behaviorist who conditioned fear in 'Little Albert,' showing emotions can be classically conditioned.
Operant Conditioning: Learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences (Skinner).
B.F. Skinner: Pioneered operant conditioning using the Skinner box to study reinforcement and punishment.
Positive vs Negative Reinforcement: Positive adds a pleasant stimulus; negative removes an unpleasant one; both increase behavior.
Punishment: A consequence that decreases behavior; positive adds an aversive stimulus, negative removes a pleasant one.
Primary vs Secondary Reinforcer: Primary reinforcers satisfy biological needs (food); secondary reinforcers gain value through learning (money).

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Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations to gradually guide behavior toward a desired target.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement after a set number of responses; produces high, steady rates of responding.
Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses; yields high, persistent responding (e.g., gambling).
Fixed & Variable Interval: Fixed-interval reinforces after a set time; variable-interval after unpredictable time periods.
Observational Learning: Learning by watching and imitating others; demonstrated in Bandura's Bobo doll study.
Biological Constraints: Innate predispositions that make some associations (like taste aversion) easier to learn than others.
Higher-Order Conditioning: A conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (weaker) CS; e.g., a light paired with a tone that already predicts food.
Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a weakened conditioned response after a rest period following extinction; shows extinction suppresses rather than erases learning.
Generalization vs Discrimination: Generalization: responding to stimuli similar to the CS (Little Albert feared white rabbits); discrimination: learning to respond only to the specific CS.
Taste Aversion (Garcia Effect): Rats associate taste, not sights or sounds, with nausea even after a single pairing with hours of delay; shows biological preparedness.
Rescorla's Contingency Model: Classical conditioning depends on how reliably the CS predicts the US, not mere pairing — a cognitive element in conditioning.
Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations of a target behavior until the full behavior emerges.
Primary vs Secondary Reinforcer: Primary reinforcers satisfy biological needs (food); secondary (conditioned) reinforcers gain power through association (money, praise, tokens).
Negative Reinforcement vs Punishment: Negative reinforcement removes something aversive to increase behavior (taking aspirin); punishment adds or removes something to decrease behavior.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement after a set number of responses; produces high rates with a brief pause after each reward (piecework pay).
Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses; highest, steadiest response rate and most resistant to extinction (slot machines).
Fixed-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement for the first response after a set time; produces a scalloped pattern — responding accelerates near the deadline.
Variable-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement for the first response after unpredictable time periods; slow, steady responding (checking email).

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Instinctive Drift: Trained animals revert to biologically predisposed behaviors (raccoons 'washing' coins), limiting operant conditioning.
Latent Learning: Tolman's rats learned maze layouts (cognitive maps) without reward; learning appeared only once reinforcement was introduced.
Overjustification Effect: Rewarding an already-enjoyed activity can undermine intrinsic motivation, so the person does it less when rewards stop.
Learned Helplessness: Seligman: after uncontrollable aversive events, organisms passively stop trying to escape even when escape becomes possible.
Mirror Neurons: Frontal-lobe neurons that fire both when performing an action and when observing another perform it; proposed basis for imitation and empathy.
Bandura's Bobo Doll Study: Children who watched an adult beat a doll imitated the aggression, especially when the model was rewarded (vicarious reinforcement).

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