Testing and Individual Differences: every key term you need (+ practice quiz)

More AP Psychology guides

• Scientific Foundations of Psychology
• Biological Bases of Behavior
• Sensation and Perception
• Learning
• Cognitive Psychology

Intelligence

Cognitive ability to learn, reason, and solve problems; measured by IQ tests; varies by culture and context.

IQ (Intelligence Quotient)

Standardized score (mean 100, SD 15) measuring cognitive ability; calculated as mental age/chronological age × 100.

g factor

General intelligence factor proposed by Spearman; single underlying ability underlying all cognitive tasks.

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

Theory of 8 types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic.

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

Intelligence comprises analytical (problem-solving), creative (novel solutions), and practical (real-world adaptation).

Flynn Effect

Steady increase in IQ scores over generations; attributed to better nutrition, education, environmental complexity.

Test Validity

Does test measure what it claims to measure? Content, construct, and criterion validity ensure accuracy.

Reliability

Consistency of test results; test-retest reliability checks stability; internal consistency checks item coherence.

Standardization

Test administered same way to everyone; allows meaningful comparison; uses norms to interpret scores.

Personality

Stable pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors; trait-based (Big Five) or type-based (Myers-Briggs).

Big Five Traits

Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism; most empirically supported model.

OCEAN acronym

Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism; Big Five personality dimensions.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Personality assessment based on Jungian types; 16 types from 4 dichotomies; popular but less scientifically supported.

Trait

Stable characteristic affecting behavior across situations; measurable on continuum; basis of trait theory.

Temperament

Innate disposition toward certain emotional and behavioral patterns; genetic basis; foundation for personality.

Heritability

Proportion of trait variation due to genetic differences; 0% = environment only, 100% = genetics only.

Nature vs Nurture

Debate over genetic (nature) vs environmental (nurture) influences on behavior and traits.

Self-efficacy

Belief in ability to succeed in specific situations; influences motivation and performance; developed through experience.

Locus of Control

Belief about control over outcomes: internal (personal control) vs external (fate/luck).

Assessment

Process of gathering information about person's abilities, personality, or psychological state through tests or interviews.

Charles Spearman

Proposed g (general intelligence) after finding that scores on different mental tests correlate positively; used factor analysis.

Thurstone's Primary Mental Abilities

Identified seven clusters (verbal comprehension, word fluency, number, spatial, memory, perceptual speed, reasoning) but they still correlated, supporting some g.

Savant Syndrome

A person with limited overall ability has an exceptional specific skill (calendar calculation, music); Gardner cites it as evidence for multiple intelligences.

Emotional Intelligence

Ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions (Mayer, Salovey); predicts social success beyond academic ability.

Binet & Mental Age

Alfred Binet developed the first practical test to identify French children needing help; mental age = performance level typical of a given chronological age.

Stern's IQ Formula

IQ = (mental age ÷ chronological age) × 100; a 10-year-old performing like a 12-year-old has IQ 120. Modern tests use deviation scores instead.

Wechsler Scales (WAIS/WISC)

Most widely used intelligence tests; yield an overall score plus verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed indices.

Achievement vs Aptitude Tests

Achievement tests measure what you have learned (AP exam); aptitude tests predict future performance (SAT, though the line is blurry).

Normal Curve

Bell-shaped distribution; IQ tests are standardized with mean 100, SD 15, so about 68% score 85-115 and 95% score 70-130.

Content vs Predictive Validity

Content validity: test samples the behavior of interest (driving test); predictive validity: test predicts future criterion (SAT and college GPA).

Test-Retest & Split-Half Reliability

Reliability is consistency: same person scores similarly on retesting, or the two halves of a test agree.

Stereotype Threat

A self-confirming worry about confirming a negative group stereotype that lowers test performance (Steele & Aronson).

Intellectual Disability

IQ about 70 or below plus difficulty adapting to everyday demands (conceptual, social, practical); Down syndrome is one cause.

Freud's Structure of Personality

Id (pleasure principle, unconscious drives), ego (reality principle, mediator), superego (moral ideals and conscience).

Defense Mechanisms

Ego strategies that reduce anxiety by distorting reality: repression, regression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, sublimation, denial.

Projective Tests

Rorschach inkblots and Thematic Apperception Test aim to reveal unconscious motives; criticized for low reliability and validity.

Reciprocal Determinism

Bandura: personality results from interaction of behavior, internal cognition, and environment influencing one another.

Rogers's Self-Concept

Growth requires genuineness, acceptance (unconditional positive regard), and empathy; congruence between ideal and actual self promotes health.

MMPI

Empirically derived, objective personality inventory originally for identifying emotional disorders; includes lie scales.

Person-Situation Controversy

Traits predict average behavior across many situations well, but behavior in any single situation is strongly shaped by context (Mischel).