Author's Purpose & Context: every key term you need (+ practice quiz)

More AP English Language & Composition guides

• Rhetorical Foundations & Appeals
• Rhetorical Choices & Devices
• Developing Effective Arguments
• Synthesis & Multimodal Rhetoric

Argument Structure

Claim + evidence + reasoning. Claim: assertion. Evidence: support (facts, examples). Reasoning: explains connection.

Types of Claims

Fact (provable), value (subjective, moral), policy (should/shouldn't). Different types need different proof.

Concession & Refutation

Concession: acknowledge opposing view's validity. Refutation: explain why it's wrong/weak. Shows sophisticated argument.

Logical Fallacies

Ad hominem: attack person. Straw man: misrepresent argument. Appeal to authority: unqualified expert. Hasty generalization: insufficient evidence.

Evidence Types

Facts/statistics (objective), examples (illustrative), expert testimony (credible source), personal anecdote (relatable but limited).

Qualifying Claims

Words like 'some', 'most', 'often', 'arguably' weaken claim but make it defensible. Absolute claims (always, never) harder to support.

Inductive vs Deductive

Inductive: specific examples → general conclusion. Deductive: general principle → specific application. Both valid if premises sound.

Cause & Effect

Argues X causes Y. Need to show: correlation, mechanism, temporal order, no alternative causes.

Comparison & Contrast

Show similarities (comparison) or differences (contrast). Useful for arguing one option better than another.

Counterargument

Present opposing view fairly, then refute. Strengthens argument by showing awareness of opposition.

Unit 2 Summary

Argument = claim + evidence + reasoning. Evidence types: facts, examples, testimony. Address counterarguments to strengthen persuasion.

Defensible Thesis

A claim that could reasonably be disputed and that takes a clear position; "Technology affects society" is not defensible, "Smartphones erode sustained attention" is.

Line of Reasoning

The logical sequence of claims and support that leads a reader from thesis to conclusion; each paragraph should advance it, not merely repeat it.

Commentary

The writer's own explanation of how evidence supports a claim. Evidence without commentary is a quotation dump; commentary is where the argument happens.

Warrant

The often-unstated assumption linking evidence to claim (Toulmin). "Test scores fell after phones were allowed" warrants only if scores measure learning.

Qualifier

Language limiting a claim's scope ("in most urban districts," "often"). Qualified claims are more defensible and signal intellectual honesty.

Rebuttal

Direct response showing why an opposing claim is wrong or weaker; differs from concession, which grants a point.

Anecdotal Evidence

A single story or case; vivid and persuasive but limited in generalizability. Best used to illustrate, not to prove.

Empirical Evidence

Data from observation or experiment: statistics, surveys, studies. Strength depends on method, sample, and source.

Testimonial Evidence

Statement from an expert or eyewitness. Weight depends on relevance of expertise to the specific claim.

Relevance vs. Sufficiency

Relevant evidence bears on the claim; sufficient evidence is enough of it. A single relevant study is rarely sufficient for a sweeping claim.

Representative Evidence

Evidence typical of the larger group it stands for; a cherry-picked outlier misrepresents the whole.

Selection of Evidence

What a writer includes and omits is itself a rhetorical choice; analyzing omission can reveal purpose as much as inclusion.

Illustrative Example

A concrete instance that makes an abstract claim visible; strengthens clarity but not proof.

Hypothetical Scenario

Imagined case used to test a principle ("Suppose every driver did this"). Persuasive for reasoning, weak as factual evidence.

Definition as Argument

Defining a key term strategically ("a living wage means...") frames the debate before evidence appears.

Rogerian Argument

Approach that seeks common ground and states the opposing view fairly before proposing a compromise; useful for polarized audiences.

Classical Arrangement

Introduction (exordium), narration of facts, division of issues, proof, refutation, conclusion (peroration).

Induction

Reasoning from specific instances to a general claim; strong when instances are many and representative.

Deduction

Reasoning from a general premise to a specific conclusion; valid only if the premise is accepted.

Syllogism

Major premise, minor premise, conclusion. Analysis checks whether both premises are true, not just whether the form is valid.

Enthymeme

A syllogism with a premise left unstated because the audience is expected to supply it; persuasive because the reader participates.

Burden of Proof

The obligation to support a claim rests on the one asserting it; shifting the burden ("prove it isn't true") is a fallacy.